Carbon sequestration and performance enhancement of lime mortar modified with natural additives for sustainable construction
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.62638/ZasMat1941Abstract
This study investigated the potential of lime mortar modified with starchy extract and Terminaliachebula to enhance carbon capture and utilization (CCU) for sustainable construction applications. The modified mortars were evaluated using compressive strength testing, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and BET pore structure analysis to assess mechanical performance, carbonation behavior, and microstructural evolution.Results showed that starchy extract-modified mortar improved carbonation by 39.7% and mechanical performance by 15.2% due to enhanced pore refinement and moisture retention, reducing pore volume to 0.068 cc/g compared with the reference mortar (0.075 cc/g). Chebula-modified mortar exhibited the lowest pore volume (0.061 cc/g), indicating a denser microstructure formed through tannin-Ca²⁺ interactions, promoting cohesion, water retention, and formation of amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC). The combined additive mortar exhibited the highest pore volume (0.080 cc/g), creating an optimized pore network that enhanced CO₂ diffusion and maintained matrix stability, resulting in 35% higher compressive strength and 3.46% greater CCU efficiency than the reference mortar.Microstructural analysis confirmed enhanced calcite formation in starchy extract mortar, ACC-rich matrices in Chebula mortar, and balanced crystalline-amorphous carbonate phases in the combined system. The findings demonstrate that natural organic additives significantly improve carbonation, carbon sequestration, and mechanical performance of lime mortar for sustainable non-load-bearing construction applications.
Keywords:
Lime mortar, carbon sequestration, carbon capture and utilization (CCU), sustainable materialReferences
IEA(2025) Global Energy Review 2025. International Energy Agency, Paris. Available from: https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-review-2025
N.Santhanam(2024) India Cement & Construction Industry GHG& CO₂ Emissions. Energy Alternatives India (EAI).
T.S.Selvaraj, K.Kaliyavaradhan, R.Kakria, A.Malladi(2022) Use of E-Waste in metakaolin blended cement concrete for sustainable construction. Sustainability, 14(24), 16661. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142416661
A.Naqi, J.G.Jang(2019) Recent progress in green cement technology utilizing low-carbon emission fuels and raw materials: A review. Sustainability, 11(2), 537. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11020537
C.Rodriguez-Navarro, T.Ilić, E.Ruiz-Agudo, K.Elert (2023) Carbonation mechanisms and kinetics of lime-based binders: An overview. Cement and Concrete Research, 173, 107301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2023.107301
Z.Karaca (2023) Experimental study on characterization of lime-based mineral carbonation reaction and CO₂ sequestration. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30, 117804–117816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30562-0
S.Wei, F.Xiao, H.Dong, H.Chen (2025) Carbonate polymorph formation in microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP): Influencing factors, mechanisms, and knowledge gaps. Earth-Science Reviews, 265, 105129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2025.105129
A.Laveglia, N.Ukrainczyk, N.De Belie, E.Koenders (2023) Decarbonizing the lime-based construction materials industry: A practical guide for cradle-to-gate life-cycle inventory. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 40, 194–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2023.06.021
C.Shao, Z.Liu, Z.Xu, B.Wang, J.Li, L.Liang, D.Wang (2025) Study on the performance evolution and carbonation mechanism of natural hydraulic lime under different CO₂ concentrations. Construction and Building Materials, 481, 141619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.141619
K.Saggu, S.Pal, N.Dev (2025) Exploring the role of organic additives in ancient lime mortars: Current knowledge and implications. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 76, 317–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2025.10.016
N.Sankar, R.Senthil (2026) Experimental and data-driven study of crack self-healing in lime mortar using Bacillus subtilis. Next Materials, 12, 102417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxmate.2026.102417
V.Athira, S.Lekshmi, A.Sharanya, A.Tripathi, S.Manohar (2024) Potential application of bio-admixtures in synthesizing traditional lime binders: A comprehensive review. Journal of Building Engineering, 90, 109464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.109464
S.Raneri, L.Mancini, G.Lanzafame, A.P.Kao, K.Giannoukos, R.C.Malladi, M.S.Kumar, V.Palleschi, T.Selvaraj (2023) From ancient lime mortar recipes to organic laboratory replicas: Interpreting forced carbonation through 3D microstructural architecture. Journal of Building Engineering, 78, 107754. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.107754
K.Zhang, Y.Sui, L.Wang et al. (2021) Effects of sticky rice addition on the properties of lime-tile dust mortars. Heritage Science, 9,4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-020-00475-z
M.Shivakumar, T.Selvaraj, M.P.Dhassaih (2021) Preparation and characterization of ancient recipe of organic lime putty: Evaluation for its suitability in restoration of Padmanabhapuram Palace, India. Scientific Reports, 11, 13261. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-91680-8
D.Xu, H.Cheng, W.Cao, P.Chen, S.Wang, N.Chen, Y.Wang, J.Wang (2025) Development of carbon-negative recycled concrete fine bricks via synergy of sticky rice liquid and biochar. Construction and Building Materials, 501, 144392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.144392
IS 712 (1984) Specification for Building Limes. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
IS 6932 Part VIII (1973) Methods of Test for Building Limes – Part VIII: Determination of Workability. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
IS 6932 Part VII (2009) Methods of Test for Building Limes – Part VII: Determination of Compressive and Transverse Strength. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
R.C.Malladi, J.Czerwinski, K.Patyna, R.P.Borg, T.Selvaraj (2026) Carbon capture and performance enhancement of lime putty finishes with organic additives: Implications for sustainable construction and heritage conservation. Results in Engineering, 29, 109698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2026.109698
M.Tiwari, M.S.Barooah (2024) A comprehensive review on the ethno-medicinal and pharmacological properties of Terminaliachebula fruit. Phytochemistry Reviews, 23, 125–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-023-09878-9
R.Shoukat, M.Cappai, L.Pilia, G.Pia (2025) Rice starch chemistry, functional properties, and industrial applications: A review. Polymers, 17(1), 110. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17010110
C.James, G.Sivasankarapillai (2022) Assessment of natural additives modified lime mortars for repair of historic structures with strength, durability and microstructural parameters. PeriodicaPolytechnica Civil Engineering. https://doi.org/10.3311/PPci.21135
J.Jiang, P.Yan, C.Liu, T.Sun, S.Xu, Q.Li (2025) Amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC): Structure, preparation, stability and identification. Advanced Powder Technology, 36(5), 104850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2025.104850
M.F.Elsadek, K.S.Al-Numair (2024) Profiling of phytochemical constituents of Terminaliachebula fruit extract by different solvent effects and synchronized analysis of FTIR and GC-MS. Journal of King Saud University – Science, 36(9), 103414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2024.103414
J.L.Bishop, S.J.King, M.D.Lane, A.J.Brown, B.Lafuente, T.Hiroi, R.Roberts, G.A.Swayze, J.Lin, M.S.Román (2021) Spectral properties of anhydrous carbonates and nitrates. Earth and Space Science, 8(10). https://doi.org/10.1029/2021EA001844
M.O.Yusuf (2023) Bond characterization in cementitious material binders using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Applied Sciences, 13(5), 3353. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053353
K.Zhang, Y.Zhang, Y.Liu, L.Wang, L.He, T.Dong, R.Lu, Y.Zhang, F.Yang (2022) Influence of polar amino acids on the carbonation of lime mortars. Heritage Science, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-022-00829-9
D.Xu, G.Qi, D.Wang, D.Zhang, S.Zhang (2025) Competitive mechanisms of hydration and carbonation in hydraulic lime under natural and accelerated carbonation (3% CO₂). Journal of Building Engineering, 111, 113357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2025.113357
K.Saggu, S.Pal, N.Dev (2025) Exploring the role of organic additives in ancient lime mortars: Current knowledge and implications. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 76, 317–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2025.10.016
Chen Z, Liu H, Xu L, Ge W(2024) A review of mechanical properties and carbonation behavior evolution of lime mortar for architectural heritage restoration. Minerals and Mineral Materials, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.20517/mmm.2023.26
Z.Chen, H.Liu, L.Xu, W.Ge (2024) A review of mechanical properties and carbonation behavior evolution of lime mortar for architectural heritage restoration. Minerals and Mineral Materials, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.20517/mmm.2023.26
A.Liapis, D.Baliakas, E.Tsardaka, M.Stefanidou (2026) Carbonation of lime-based mortars, a parameter of whole life-cycle carbon assessment (WLC). RILEMBookseries, 281–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-14170-5_28
Y.Cai, P.Feng, X.Liu, X.Shen, B.Lothenbach (2025) Simultaneous formation and decomposition of calcium silicate hydrate under carbonation in water. Cement and Concrete Research, 199, 108021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2025.108021
S.VonGreve-Dierfeld, B.Lothenbach, A.Vollpracht, B.Wu, B.Huet, C.Andrade, C.Medina, C.Thiel, E. Gruyaert, H.Vanoutrive, I.F.S.Del Bosque, I. Ignjatovic, J.Elsen, J.L.Provis, K.Scrivener, K. Thienel, K.Sideris, M.Zajac, N.Alderete, N.De Belie (2020) Understanding the carbonation of concrete with supplementary cementitious materials: A critical review by RILEMTC 281-CCC. Materials and Structures, 53(6). https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-020-01558-w
C.Rodriguez-Navarro, A.Suzuki, E.Ruiz-Agudo (2013) Alcohol dispersions of calcium hydroxide nanoparticles for stone conservation. Langmuir, 29(36), 11457–11470. https://doi.org/10.1021/la4017728
C.James, G.Sivasankarapillai (2022) Assessment of natural additives modified lime mortars for repair of historic structures with strength, durability and microstructural parameters. PeriodicaPolytechnica Civil Engineering. https://doi.org/10.3311/PPci.21135
J.Otero, A.E.Charola, V.Starinieri (2019) Sticky rice–nanolime as a consolidation treatment for lime mortars. Journal of Materials Science, 54, 10217–10234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-019-03618-1
S.Wani, T.Selvaraj (2024) Influence of age of fermented Terminaliachebula fruit extract in shell lime: An ancient lime putty production technique adopted in Indian heritage structures. Journal of Building Engineering, 98, 111054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.111054
E.Asiamah, J.Gan, Y.Wang, X.Bian, C.Wang, D. Geng, B.K.Mintah, M.R.Nemţanu, Y.Cheng (2025) New insight on the impact of amylose/amylopectin ratio on structural and digestion profile: A review on conventional and non-conventional products. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 335(Pt 1), 149204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.149204
C.Wang, H.Zhang, X.Wang, X.Wang, X.Li, C.Li, Y.Wang, M.Zhang (2024) Comprehensive review on fruit of Terminaliachebula: Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicity and pharmacokinetics. Molecules, 29(23), 5547. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29235547
S.D.Rani, A.Rahul, M.Santhanam (2020) A multi-analytical approach for pore structure assessment in historic lime mortars. Construction and Building Materials, 272, 121905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121905
S.Seifi, D.Levacher, A.Razakamanantsoa, N. Sebaibi (2023) Microstructure of dry mortars without cement: Specific surface area, pore size and volume distribution analysis. Applied Sciences, 13(9), 5616. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13095616
C.Briceño, M.Azenha, G.Vasconcelos, C. Rodriguez -Navarro, P.B.Lourenço (2025) Influence of lime on the evolution of cement mortars carbonation and hydration processes. Construction and Building Materials, 491, 142729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.142729
J.Sun, P.Jiang, R.Xu (2024) Insights into mechanism and modelling of dynamic moisture sorption in dual-porous insulation materials with micro- and nano-scale pores. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 660, 21–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2024.01.069
L.Cheng, F.Guan, D.Liu, W.Yang, J.Sun (2021) Micropore characteristics and geological significance of shale reservoirs: Case study of Fuling shale gas in Sichuan Basin, China. Geofluids, 2021, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6636156
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
